MENTAL, the Union of the Natural and the Artificial
MENTAL, THE UNION OF THE NATURAL AND THE ARTIFICIAL
"Machines will be able to do any work that man can do" (Herbert A. Simon).
"The nature of reality is none other than consciousness" (Seyyed Hossein Nasr).
"Technology expands our ways of thinking about things, it expands our ways of doing things."(Herbert A. Simon)
Fractal fern
Natural vs. Artificial
Natural is that which relates to the products and phenomena of nature. Artificial is that which relates to the products and behaviors of human beings.
Artificial is the antithesis of natural. The term "artificial" has a certain pejorative character, because sometimes it is considered synonymous of fictitious, simulated, deceitful, false, etc. And it has as antonyms: true, authentic, genuine, real, etc. However, the artificial is not alien to nature, since everything is governed by natural law. Since man is a product of nature, we can consider that the products of man are products of nature of the second order.
Differentiating characteristics between the natural and the artificial are:
Analysis-synthesis.
We analyze the products and phenomena of nature to try to discover scientific laws, i.e., we analyze particular data to induce general laws. In contrast, the artificial is produced by a process of synthesis, the result of a design.
Descriptive-operational.
We try to describe nature. Artificial, on the other hand, always requires an operational component.
Discovery-invention.
Nature we try to discover. The artificial is invention, which is more or less original and creative, since imitations more or less close to natural products can be made.
Decision-making.
What is natural is given to us. Nature (or the power behind nature) has already made its decisions. Nature does not "think" what to do; it acts. In contrast, in the field of the artificial, decisions are constantly being made in all areas (family, social, work, economic, etc.). These decisions vary in degrees of importance, from the inconsequential to the transcendent, depending on their future repercussions.
A common characteristic of the natural and the artificial is their teleological character. Everything has a purpose, an end, an objective, a meaning. This implies that there is an intelligence operating behind the natural and the artificial.
Herbert Simon and "The Sciences of the Artificial"
Herber Simon −central figure of 20th century science, prolific author and scientist laureate&minus was an interdisciplinary researcher who focused on numerous fields: economics, cognitive psychology, cognitive science, public administration, management, organization theory, sociology and political science. He was one of the founders of artificial intelligence, along with Allen Newell, Marvin Minsky and John McCarthy. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 for his interdisciplinary research and for his contributions to the rationalization of the decision-making process. He received the Turing Award in 1975, together with Allen Newell, for his contributions to artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology.
Simon, a rational, meticulous, calculating, orderly and practical man, was a universalist. His central concept was that of the "model." Over six decades he searched for a universal model, both theoretical and practical, in which he attempted to relate thought, computation and human behavior (especially in problem solving and decision making).
In the field of social sciences, he attempted to understand human behavior through mathematical models, models that later became computer simulation models. With an unwavering positivist spirit, he proposed the creation of a true "science of management", with its logical foundations, a science of practical application, to study and rationalize human behavior in organizations in decision-making and problem-solving. He proposed formulas to make bureaucracy less cumbersome, more fluid and more flexible. Simon defined himself, in this area of the social sciences, as a "monomaniac". His "mania" was to understand decision making by individuals and organizations.
Generic systems
Simon was actively involved in the development of different models or generic systems, including the following:
The Logic Theorist.
Program developed by Herbert Simon, Allen Newell and Cliff Shaw in 1955. It is considered the first artificial intelligence computer program, although this name was coined months later. The Theoretical Logician succeeded in proving 38 of the 52 theorems in Principia Mathematica, (Russell and Whitehead's work) and found more elegant proofs for some of those theorems. The Theoretical Logic was presented by Simon and Newell at the famous 1956 Dartmouth College conference, considered the founding event of artificial intelligence, and where that term was coined.
The Theoretical Logic was implemented in the IPL language, a language developed by the same authors [see Addendum].
The General Problem Solver (GPS).
It is a computer program created in 1957 by the same authors above. Its objective was to solve problems of all types. The problems were represented in a formal symbolic language, in which the objects and the operations that could be done with those objects to obtain other objects were defined. It implemented a general method based on "means-ends analysis". This method was based on the analysis at each point in time of the available alternatives and the choice of the alternative that came closest to the objective.
GPS was the first program that separated the knowledge of the problem from its resolution method. GPS was able to solve common sense problems and recursive problems (such as the towers of Hanoi). GPS was also implemented in IPL. The GPS system is described in a book that is considered a scientific milestone of the 20th century: "Human Problem Solving" [Newell & Simon, 1972].
GPS evolved, with Simon and Newell, into the SOAR (State Operator And Result) system, an architecture for problem solving and learning.
Bacon.
A series of programs named after Francis Bacon, the great promoter of the inductive method in science. Bacon discovered scientific-mathematical laws from experimental data. Among his achievements are the discovery of the third law of planetary motion (from data known to Kepler) and Ohm's law. Bacon is described in the book "Scientific Discovery" [1987]. With Bacon the field called "Computational Scientific Discovery" was inaugurated.
The Information Processing System (IPS) model.
Developed in collaboration with Allen Newell, it was based on a theory that today we call "computationalism":
The "manipulation of symbols" is the essence of the intelligence common to humans and machines.
The human mind and computers are so similar that it is possible to develop a new theory that unifies psychology and computer science, for both are symbol-processing systems.
Human reasoning and decision making are structurable and, therefore, standardizable and programmable following a certain process that could be modeled on a computer.
A theory of mind can be constructed based on information processing, a theory where informational processes would be the first foundations.
It is possible to explain the complexity of human thought from a number of simple psychological mechanisms.
IPS is also described in "Human Problem Solving" [1972]. In "The Sciences of the Artificial" [2006], Simon states his thesis that computation and the human mind are symbol-processing systems. [see Comparisons - MENTAL vs. IPS].
The artificial
In his 1969 work "The Sciences of the Artificial" [2006], Simon distinguishes between the natural sciences and the sciences of the artificial. The former are concerned with the study of the objects and phenomena of nature, while the latter deal with the products and behavior of man.
Simon tried to create a general science, the science of the artificial:
A science with its own features, different from the sciences of nature, of a fundamentally operational type.
Aimed at better understanding the human being through its manifestations. According to Simon, the world in which we live is more a man-made world (an artificial world) than a natural world.
A science of an interdisciplinary type, since it would cover many domains: administration, organization, management, design, economics, computer science, engineering, artificial intelligence, simulation, etc. It would even include psychology (human behavior) and philosophy, since according to Simon they are also products created by human beings, artificial products.
Related to empirical sciences and formal sciences (logic, mathematics, etc.).
A science of a practical type, aimed at knowing and solving concrete problems.
Decision making
Simon was a pioneer in logical and psychological research on decision making in large organizations (public companies, multinationals, etc.). In his most celebrated work "Managerial Behavior. A study of decision-making processes in the administrative organization" (1947) [1971], he presents the "principle of bounded rationality". Simon proposed this theory as an alternative to the theory that views decision making as a fully rational process based on finding the optimal alternative with the available information.
The principle of bounded rationality is the idea that, in the subject of decision making, human rationality is limited by 3 factors: 1) the information available; 2) the cognitive limitations of each individual; 3) the finite time available to make the decision.
Given these constraints, the decision maker looks for the first "satisfactory" alternative, a solution that is good enough, rather than the optimal one, a solution that satisfies the stated needs. This is the "satisficing principle".
Most humans are only partially rational, because in many cases they act driven by emotional impulses. At other times, given the existing constraints to make the optimal decision, they apply rationality after having simplified the available alternatives. At other times, given the complexity of many situations and the cost of analyzing each alternative to make the optimal decision, more or less explicit heuristic rules are used.
The design
Within the Artificial Sciences, Simon especially highlighted the "Design Sciences":
Nature does not design; it acts according to natural laws, deterministically, without decision. In design, on the other hand, there is decision. "To a large extent, the true study of humanity consists in the science of design."
The concept of design is teleological, that is, it directs activity toward a specific purpose. Designing is directly related to prescribing: something to be done to achieve a goal.
In design, the logic of decision among several alternatives is used. To design is to decide.
Design Science was born in the mid-1970s at Carnegie Mellon University, which focused primarily on Computer-Aided Design (CAD).
The mind-computer analogy
Experience with generalist systems (especially with IPS) led Simon to a radical conclusion: thinking is equivalent to computing. Machines think because they compute. We are computers because we think. The human mind in the image of the computer. In 1957, Simon prophesied that in 10 years most theories in psychology would take the form of computer programs. Simon rejected behaviorism.
The computer is an artifact, a man-made artificial object with unlimited capabilities.
The computer is an object of abstract type and governed by general laws. It is also an empirical object, since it allows experimentation.
The human mind, human thinking, creativity and decision making are neither mysterious nor complex. His motto was "Wonderful, but not comprehensible" [Simon, 2006]. He even valued the role of intuition as dissociated from magic and mysticism, and as complementary to analysis in decision making.
A machine that can manipulate symbols can simulate decision-making and even the human thought process.
From a computational point of view, decision-making processes can be implemented using algorithms and heuristics.
Computers can compete with the best human minds in reasoning processes. The computer can do any job that man can do.
The mechanism of scientific discovery is only a particular case of the general problem-solving process.
The simplicity of computer "binary thinking" should serve as a model for reducing the complexity of human thinking.
The computer should serve as the foundation for the organization of modern life.
The computer allows the simulation (or imitation) of a great variety of processes, thanks to its abstract character and its generalization in the manipulation of symbols. Simulation is all the easier the more we abstract away the details of a phenomenon and focus only on the essential features of the phenomenon.
Simplicity
Simon always believed in the power of simplicity. He believed that the principles of rational knowledge would enable him to see the world as a complex system resulting from the articulation or combination of simple elements.
The apparent complexity of the behavior of a system (natural or artificial) may be due in large part to the complexity of the external environment.
"Human beings, viewed as behavioral systems, are very simple. The apparent complexity of our behavior over time is primarily a reflection of the complexity of the environment in which we find ourselves."
"Complexity, properly focused, masks nothing but simplicity, finding the pattern hidden in the apparent chaos."
"The complexity or simplicity of a structure depends basically on our way of describing it."
"To achieve simplification we must come up with the right representation."
"To solve a problem simply means to represent it in such a way that the solution is transparent".
MENTAL, the Union of the Natural and the Artificial
From MENTAL's point of view, the boundary between the natural and the artificial is blurred because both domains share the same primary archetypes:
Foundation.
MENTAL is the foundation of the universal model that Simon sought. But MENTAL goes beyond the natural and the artificial. It is the foundation of possible worlds. Thought and computation are not equivalent; they are manifestations of the same primary archetypes.
Simplification.
MENTAL is not the general problem solver, but by working directly with archetypes, all problems are simplified, clarified or diluted. MENTAL is the "General Problem Simplifier".
Inferences.
In MENTAL, inferences (particular and general) are automatic. This is a clear example of simplification.
Unification.
MENTAL unifies the model of external (physical) and internal (mental) reality. MENTAL is a model of the mind.
Degrees of freedom.
With MENTAL we design with degrees of freedom, which are the primary archetypes. The limits of the language are the limits of the archetypes.
Synthesis.
An expression in MENTAL is a synthesis of one or more manifestations of the primary archetypes.
Simplicity.
MENTAL is the best example of how the complex emerges from the simple. Simplicity resides in the primary archetypes. Binary simplicity is of a radical type that implies a loss of semantics.
Operational-descriptive.
MENTAL expressions can be operational, descriptive, or mixed.
Addenda
IPL (Information Processing Language)
Developed in 1956, it was used in the development of Theoretical Logic (1956), GPS (1957) and NSS (1958). The latter was a program for playing chess.
IPL implemented general type features such as: lists, property lists, schemas, recursion, symbol processing, higher-order functions, generators, and cooperative multitasking. IPL was the first programming language to implement lists and the first to support recursion.
IPL was soon replaced by Lisp, a high-level language with more powerful features and a simpler syntax.
Bibliography
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Augier, Mie; March, James G. (eds.). Models of a Man. Essays in Memory of Herbert A. Simon. The MIT Press, 2004.
Langley, Pat; Simon, Herbert A.; Bradshaw, Gary L.; Zytkow, Jan M. Scientific Discovery. Computational Explorations of the Creative Processes. MIT Press, 1987.
March, James G.; Simon, Herbert A. Teoría de la organización. Ariel, 1994.
Newell, A., Shaw, J.C.; Simon, H.A. Elements of a theory of human problem solving. Psychological Review, 65, 151-166, 1958.
Newell, Allen; Simon, Herbert A. Human Problem Solving. Prentice-Hall, 1972.
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Simon, Herbert A. Asignación de recursos. Alianza, 1970.
Simon, Herbert A. Comportamiento administrativo. Aguilar, 1971.
Simon, Herbert A. Reason in Human Affairs. Stanford University Press, 1990.
Simon, Herbert. Models of my life. The MIT Press, 1996.
Simon, Herbert. Models of Bounded Rationality. The MIT Press, 1982-1997.
