"Universal Grammar is a theory about the deep structure of the human mind" (Chomsky).
"There is only one grammar in all languages. The peculiarities are mere accidental variations" (Roger Bacon).
Chomsky's Linguistic Conception
Noam Chomsky is regarded as the great modern renovator of linguistics. Chomsky is a formalist, mentalist, innatist and universalist.
In Chomsky there has been a long evolution in his conception and development of linguistics, from a pure syntactic approach towards an approach in which he tries to give priority to semantics, having continuously restated his own theses.
Chomsky adopts in linguistics the Galilean style of research, the main features of which are abstraction and idealization:
Through abstraction the external sensory world of particular sentences is transcended.
Idealization is a "far-reaching" abstraction, in which one transcends the world of language and aims to discover the deeper principles, ignoring irrelevant factors.
Competence and performance
Chomsky distinguishes between competence and performance of a language:
Competence is the internal, subjective aspect of a native speaker's knowledge of a language, the ability to express himself in his own language and to interpret what another speaker of the same language communicates to him.
Performance is the external, objective, observable aspect of a language, the actual production of sentences. It is the externalized competence, the observable linguistic activity.
Chomsky invents the concept of the "ideal speaker-listener", a person who knows the language perfectly well and who is not affected by conditions irrelevant from a grammatical point of view, such as memory limitations, distractions, inattention and lack of interest, as well as errors (deviations from rules, omissions, modifications, etc.) when applying his knowledge of the language to a concrete performance, since in normal speech we find only under ideal conditions the performance is a reflection of competence,
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Formal grammar is the manifestation of internal competence. The linguist's task is to find the hidden system behind the competence, its grammar expressed in the form of rules.
The two criteria for evaluating a grammar are grammaticality and acceptability.
Grammaticality is the appropriateness of the grammar to the competence, i.e., that no nonsensical forms can be generated. A sentence is ungrammatical if it is meaningless, e.g. "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously".
Acceptability is the appropriateness of grammar to performance.
I-Language and E-Language
For Chomsky, there are two types of languages: I-language and E-language:
I-Language is the internal, subjective, individual and intentional language. It is the mental representation of a native speaker's linguistic knowledge. From this point of view, linguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology.
E-Language is the external, objective, empirical, collective language. It is the knowledge of the language spoken by a community. For example, the Spanish language.
For Chomsky, the real goal of linguistics is not to map E-Language by describing a lot of data, but to try to know the internal states and mechanisms of I-Language, the internal human language.
Mentalism vs. Behaviorism
For Chomsky, the object of study of linguistics is to discover the mechanisms and internal states of the mind, and not the analysis of linguistic behavior, which is a mere external manifestation of an internal process. Chomsky's philosophy is thus mentalistic: he wants to study human linguistic behavior as a function of the underlying internal cognitive system. In fact, Chomsky's latest linguistic theories (Principles and Parameters, Minimalist Program) are really theories of mind.
This mentalistic attitude of Chomsky's comes as a general reaction to behaviorist psychology. Especially harsh was his criticism of Skinner's "Verbal Behavior". And this attitude was also against the empirical tradition of linguistics, whose main promoter was Bloomfield.
Plato's problem
Chomsky's response to this issue is as follows:
There is a Universal Grammar (UG) that is innate, deep, underlying all languages, prior to all experience, and common to all human beings. Languages share a number of universals and differ only in the surface structure of sentences. All children are born with the ability to develop any language, regardless of the social group to which they belong. This ability allows the child to understand and express him/herself in a language without explicit instruction.
The child does not formally learn the language but it develops in the child's mind-brain automatically. The child is not born with a clean slate, but is genetically predisposed to acquire the knowledge of a language. Language is not learned, it is something that happens.
Language is not a cultural product, but an innate, autonomous, specialized mental-brain organ or module specialized in language, with which it is learned and which uses natural language in a practically instinctive way. It is an organ specifically dedicated to language, in the same way that there is another organ dedicated to vision. Language is like another organ of the human system, not isolated, but interconnected with the others. Speakers of a language do not understand the theory of language any more than they understand the theory of the visual system.
The characteristics of the hypothetical UG are:
It is the initial, innate state of the linguistic faculty, reflecting the common structure of all languages.
It is formed by a finite set of principles that allows an infinite number of sentences to be constructed and interpreted. This set of principles determines the constraints that are applied in the construction of particular grammars.
Reflects the common structure of all languages, which also includes mechanisms for generating particular languages.
Explains the variety of human languages. All languages are identical at a deep level, just as the human form or circulatory system is identical. The detail varies, but their essence is the same. Human beings learn a language by innate brain/mental predisposition, not by imitation.
A part of cognitive psychology that aims to determine the invariant principles of the linguistic faculty and how those principles give rise to all possible human languages.
It is not a concrete grammar. Nor is it a theory of knowledge. It is a theory about the internal structure of the human mind. It is an internalized grammar, a subjective grammar, constituted by semantic rules.
It has a modular structure, that is, it has separate, though interrelated, components.
Descartes' problem
Chomsky's answer to this problem is his generative grammar (GG) model, a very simple and powerful formalism for representing the structure of natural language, thus placing syntax at the center of the study of linguistics.
It uses hierarchical linguistic categories.
[By means of a finite set of descriptive rules, the whole language can be generated. The rules establish the correct combinations between linguistic categories.
There are two types of rules: 1) of structure, which show how a sentence is divided into its components (syntagms); 2) of connection, which connect types of sentences.
These rules can be recursive, so they allow to represent infinite sentences from a finite number of elements. There is also no upper limit on the length of a sentence. This is the so-called "discrete infinity".
A GG consists of:
A terminal vocabulary (the lexical units).
A non-terminal vocabulary (the descriptive labels of the categories).
A set of descriptive rules of structure.
A sentence axiom (the initial non-terminal element).
This model explains creativity, one of the most significant features of human language.
Before Chomsky, the grammar of a language was something closed, restrictive, descriptive, static, and did not explain the mechanism by which infinite sentences could be formed. For Saussure, all language is a static system of interrelated elements. And for Bloomfield, grammar is merely descriptive, based on the analysis of the constituent elements of sentences.
With Chomsky, grammar becomes a formal system, using logical-mathematical formulas and symbols. Grammar becomes open, flexible, operative, dynamic and creative, an internal mechanism of finite knowledge that explains the infinite sentences that can be constructed.
For Chomsky, the task of the linguist is not simply to describe a language (language itself), but grammar, conceived as a theory of linguistic knowledge, i.e., the grammatical rules that allow to produce all sentences of language that are grammatical and that do not allow to produce those of an agrammatical type. And with the GG this goal is achieved.
Greenberg's problem
With his UG hypothesis, Chomsky solves both Plato's problem (UG is innate) and also Greenberg's problem: UG is the natural root language that grounds all other languages.
Darwin's problem
For Chomsky, linguistics is but a subchapter of biology. Language is independent of environmental stimuli. This conception has led to the creation of a new domain: biolinguistics, the study of natural language from a biological and evolutionary perspective.
Transformational generative grammar (TGG). Deep and shallow structure
It is an improvement proposed by Chomsky of the generative grammar (GG) model. In addition to grammatical rules (descriptive of syntax), it allows transformation rules (operational rules).
In TGG, grammar and each sentence operates at two levels: shallow and deep.
The deep (DS), or latent, structure is derived from the properties of the lexicon. It is implicit in the competence. It is abstract and is associated with semantics.
The surface structure (SS), or patent, is derived from the transformation rules made from the deep structure (DS). The SS is explicit in the performance. The DS generates the SS. Between the DS and the SS are the transformation processes. The surface level is derived from the deep level by applying the transformation rules. Transformations are operations of movement, deletion, aggregation or permutation of elements that make it possible to establish connections between the PD and the SS.
With this two-level system, Chomsky attempts to separate semantics from syntax in order to discover and reveal connections between the deep and the shallow. DS can be understood as the communicative intention of the speaker, which operates with abstract ideas, and which materializes at the surface level. The SS is the concrete structure presented by the uttered message. The speaker operates semantically and abstractly, and performs a series of structural, grammatical and syntactic transformations to produce the SS.
Examples of DS and SS:
"John loves Mary" and "Mary is loved by John" are two equivalent surface structures derived from the same deep structure.
The sentence "What time is it?" is the SS corresponding to the DS "I ask you what time it is".
The opposite case can also occur: the same sentence (SS) can have different DS's. In this case we have an ambiguous sentence. For example, "I make the room" can mean "I am in room place", "I arrange the room" or "I build the object room".
In any case, the concepts of DS, SS, and transformation have varied over time. For example, a transformation can also be considered as the reverse process, from SS to DS, by which the human mind constructs and understands the sentences of a language.
Principles and Parameters (P&P)]
In 1979, Chomsky postulates the existence of some Principles and Parameters (P&P), adopting for the first time an approach in which he tries to give priority to semantics over syntax....
Principles are a single, fixed, immutable and finite set of linguistic universals shared by all languages, constituting Universal Grammar (UG).
The parameters are a set of variables with their corresponding particular values that each language fixes by experience. The parameters explain the existing linguistic variety.
A particular grammar corresponds to a particularization of UG with particular values of the parameters. It is at the stage of human development, under the influence of the social environment, that values are fixed to the parameters, producing the particular characteristics of each language. UG, on the other hand, is devoid of any contextual influence.
The goal of linguistics is to identify the set of principles and parameters common to all human beings, which constitute the Universal Grammar.
Principles do not make sense in isolation. They make sense only when combined. The generation of sentences is the result of the interaction of this set of general principles.
There are no transformations, but a single generalized operation called "move alpha", which allows moving any element to any point in the sentence, provided there is no restriction, and subject to the conditions of economy and efficiency.
Language structures are derived from universal principles and possible options (parameters). These structures are descriptive (or representative), not generative, so the rules disappear.
The Minimalist Program
In 1995, Chomsky launched his "Minimalist Program" (MP), a conceptual framework for general language theory research, which attempts to explain linguistic phenomena with as few resources as possible. In the MP, Chomsky proposes two types of minimalisms:
A conceptual, bottom-up, general minimalism. He seeks a general theory based on the smallest number of concepts (primitives) and the simplest combinatorics (grammatical rules). This theory would allow the construction of a UG.
A concrete, top-down and particular minimalism. Relating to the process of configuration or particularization of a specific language from the UG to generate the particular grammar of a language with specific values of the parameters.
Searches also for two types of economy:
Derivational economy.
This is an economy in the derivation of sentences from rules. Derivations only occur when absolutely necessary. That is, it avoids derivations at every step and only applies to the final result. This avoids unnecessary generation of sentence structures that are ultimately discarded.
Economy of representation.
A principle that states that grammatical structures must have a reason why they exist and are used. It assumes that the computational system underlying the language is perfect. There are no superfluous elements in the semantics, syntax, and phonology of human language. Everything serves a purpose and has an appropriate interpretation. This he calls the "Full Interpretation" of language, also called the "Strong Minimalist Thesis". The UG is perfectly designed, it contains only what is necessary, there is nothing redundant.
The characteristics of the MP are:
Maintains the initial idea of the existence of an innate UG, but based on a fixed set of general principles present in all languages.
Follows the principles of simplicity, economy and good design, as these principles already existed in the GG.
Se cambia la concepción de los parámetros de P&P. Ahora los parámetros están asociados a los elementos léxicos.
MP is the application of the principle of economy to linguistic phenomena. It is a program and not a theory. It is a general philosophy, a general conceptual framework that should guide the development of linguistic theory, i.e., it does not present any concrete theory. According to Chomsky, "there are minimalist questions, but no minimalist answers."
MENTAL, a Universal Linguistic Model
The linguistic problems
MENTAL provides answers to linguistic problems:
Innatism-empiricism. Plato's problem.
MENTAL is innate, since it is a set of primary archetypes of the structure of internal (mental) and external (physical) reality, which manifest themselves in all fields, including linguistics.
Finito-infinito. Descartes' problem.
The finite set of universal semantic primitives of MENTAL constitute the "engine" of the infinite expressions that can be created by unrestricted combinatorics of these primitives.
Behaviorism-mentalism.
The external language (linguistic behavior) is the reflection or manifestation of the internal language constituted by the primary archetypes and their combinatorics.
The act of speaking is the result of a process of transformation from the abstract and profound to the concrete and superficial. And the act of understanding is the opposite: from the concrete, superficial and external to the abstract, deep and internal. Therefore, both aspects are united: the internal (mental) and the external (linguistic behavior).
Natural-artificial. Greenberg's problem.
MENTAL is a set of universals (the universal semantic primitives or primary archetypes) that underlie all languages. MENTAL is the true natural language, the source of all particular languages.
Darwin's problem.
Although there may be gradual advances in the development or understanding of a language, the real breakthrough comes "all at once," when the right hemisphere of the brain takes over and views the language as a whole.
Humboldt's problem.
MENTAL language is indeed the key to everything, the foundation of all knowledge.
Syntax-semantics.
Semantics is not expressible, so it is not formalizable. The solution is to unite syntax and semantics through primary archetypes. MENTAL is the intermediary between the internal and the external world, between the deep and the superficial.
MENTAL vs. Chomskyan System
General aspects
Concepts.
Many Chomskyan concepts are quite ambiguous and fuzzy, as they admit many interpretations, especially the higher level of abstraction of P&P and MP. Other concepts have evolved over time and are difficult to pin down.
MENTAL concepts, although abstract, are clear and precise.
General theory of language.
Chomsky seeks a general theory of language and a Universal, theoretical, ideal Grammar that will ground all particular natural languages, and that will allow them to be represented, on a practical level, in symbolic form.
MENTAL is a Universal Language (UL) and a Universal Grammar (UG) that founds all possible particular languages and grammars. It is a theoretical and practical abstract linguistics based on primary archetypes and their combinatorics. Primary archetypes are inexpressible. Only particular cases of sentences or particular grammars of particular languages are expressible.
Mental-brain organ.
For Chomsky, language is a mental-brain organ.
MENTAL is the foundation of internal and external reality, which is present in everything. It is not a particular mental-brain organ but something generic and universal.
Darwin's problem.
For Chomsky, linguistics is a branch of biology. But when viewed from the point of view of primary archetypes, the biology-linguistics connection becomes clearer: both domains are manifestations of the same principles or archetypes of consciousness. Everything has a common origin. There is no subordination of linguistics to biology. Darwin's problem is explained by the principle of descending causality: the universal manifests itself in the particular. Biological evolution can be viewed from the point of view of the manifestations of these universal principles to form autonomous entities (organisms), which are manifestations of consciousness. These principles are based on simplicity and efficiency (achieving the maximum with the minimum effort).
According to Chomsky, language is developed or acquired automatically, with little or no consideration of the cultural factor, the social environment. In reality, language develops by the confluence and interaction of the two poles: the internal (the UL) and the external (which makes the UL manifest itself in a certain way). Language is the result of the union of the innate internal and the external, the experience.
Linguistic model.
Chomsky's model is a linguistic one. In contrast, MENTAL is a model of the mind and consciousness, the Universal Language foundation of all knowledge.
I-Language (internal or deep) and E-Language (external or superficial).
In MENTAL, I-Language are the universal semantic primitives (and their combinatorial possibilities), present in all languages, natural and artificial, which are inexpressible. And the E-Language are concrete expressions or manifestations of the I-Language. The primary archetypes connect in a direct way the internal and the external world, the I-Language and the E-Language.
Abstraction and linguistic idealization.
MENTAL is a universal abstraction and universal idealization that transcends all particular fields, including linguistics.
Generative Grammar (GG) and Generative Transformational Grammar (GGT)
GG and GGT are pure syntactic models. There are no semantics.
In MENTAL the foundation is semantic-syntactic, since both aspects go together, they are the two sides of the same coin.
The GG/GGT model is restrictive. Certain linguistic structures cannot be formally expressed with these grammars.
MENTAL does not have these constraints because it is based on degrees of freedom. Moreover, coding reveals the deep structure of knowledge and its relation to surface manifestations. For example: "John loves Mary" and "Mary is loved by John" are sentences of the surface structure (SS) and can be encoded as the same deep structure (DS):
love/(origin/John destination/Mary).
In MENTAL, DS is expressed indirectly through SS.
The concepts of Deep Structure (DS) and Surface Structure (SS) are unclear. On the one hand, IE is said to be internal, inexpressible. On the other it is said to be an expressible grammar.
MENTAL allows to define generative grammars (GG). The same resources are always used: universal semantic primitives. MENTAL, as a metalanguage used to define language-specific grammars, is more powerful and richer than Chomsky's GGs, since it has more resources, among them: condition and particularization.
MENTAL also allows the definition of transformational generative grammars (GGT), as it includes operational resources in addition to descriptive ones.
Universal Grammar (UG)
Chomsky talks about Universal Grammar (UG), but he does not talk about Universal Language (UL). In MENTAL UG is the same as UL because lexical semantics is the same as structural semantics. UG and UL are aspects of the same thing.
MENTAL are degrees of freedom that make up the UL (and UG). There are no restrictions because the universal cannot be restricted. Restrictions can be set by defining particular languages or grammars.
UG modular.
According to Chomsky, UG is modular. In MENTAL we say that language (and grammar) is fractal, because the same principles apply at all levels.
Structure of the mind.
For Chomsky, UG is the deep structure of the human mind.
MENTAL is fully identified with this idea, since MENTAL is the deep structure of the human mind, which is precisely consciousness. MENTAL is like the operating system with which we come into the world already installed. A particular language is a "layer" (like a software) that is supported by that operating system. We do not learn a language "from scratch", because we already start from the common core, the operating system, the universal semantic primitives.
For Chomsky, the innate is UG.
In MENTAL the innate are the primary archetypes, the deep and abstract structure of the internal and external reality, primary archetypes that constitute the UG and that by combinatorics of these archetypes form the UL.
Principles and Parameters (P&P)
Chomsky rightly intuits that a minimum set of principles should underlie linguistics, at the theoretical and practical level, but he does not specify what these principles are. He leaves the subject open to all kinds of research.
MENTAL is a language based on a concrete proposal of principles, which are the universal semantic primitives. Following the Platonic doctrine, these principles are fixed and immutable.
Regarding the parameters the imprecision is almost total:
It is not known how many parameters are needed to capture linguistic diversity.
Whether there are parameters derived from others.
Whether it may happen that there are languages that do not have certain parameters.
It is not known what the parameter values are like. Initially they were conceived of binary type (one choice between two possible ones): null or non-null subject, directionality (a complement to the left or to the right of the kernel), etc.
Whether they are linked to syntax, semantics, or both.
In MENTAL, each principle/primitive has a set of parameters. A particular language is described by a particular grammar that combines the primitives. It is always possible to express that particular grammar in a normalized or standardized way using MENTAL syntax.
Minimalist Program (MP)
The MP is presented as a "program" and not as a "theory" because it is only intended to provide a flexible and open-ended conceptual framework of inquiry to guide the development of linguistic theories. According to Chomsky, there are minimalist questions, but not minimalist answers.
MENTAL, on the other hand, is not a program. It is a concrete proposal of universal principles. It is also based on a minimalist principle (the minimal set of primitives).
Conclusions
Chomsky intuited that, at a deep level, there should be a UG founded on a minimal set of general principles or parameterizable universals in order to describe all particular languages. This vision of Chomsky's has fascinated a number of linguists, but in practice it has been difficult to identify and characterize those principles. All of Chomsky's intuitions and discoveries are synthesized in MENTAL, which is the theoretical and practical realization of Chomsky's vision:
It is based on a minimal set of general principles (the universal semantic primitives).
It is a simple solution that allows a better understanding of all of Chomsky's theories or attempts to formalize linguistics.
It provides a unified operational-descriptive model that serves as a foundation for natural and artificial linguistics, since both are based on the same principles.
It is both a UG and an UL. The UG is a semantic grammar. The UL is a semantic language. Particular grammars and particular languages are manifestations of the UG and the UL.
It is a universal linguistic model that establishes the limits of what is expressible.
MENTAL provides a simpler, clearer and more concrete linguistic model than the fuzzy and complex Chomskyan model. It is at the same time the fulfillment of Chomsky's dream of building a UG, which in the case of MENTAL is also an UL.
Addendum
A little history of Chomskyan linguistics]
In 1957 (when he was only 29 years old), Chomsky published his work "Syntactic Structures", based on his doctoral thesis "The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory". This work was a milestone in general linguistics by introducing the concept of Generative Grammar.
In 1965, Chomsky published "Aspects of the Theory of Syntax", in which he clarified and deepened the concepts of his previous work. He presents the GGT model, with its most powerful tool: transformational rules.
In 1966, he publishes "Cartesian Linguistics. A chapter in the history of rationalist thought" [1991].
In the 1960s, he introduces the concepts of competence and performance.
In 1968, with "Language and Mind", he integrates his syntactic conceptions in a philosophy of language and in the general theory of cognitive psychology. From this date onwards, Chomsky can be considered as beginning to be concerned with semantics, with meaning.
In 1969, he published "Deep Structure, Surface Structure and Semantic Interpretation", where he establishes these two levels of language.
In 1979, in the famous Pisa seminars, he postulates existence of Principles and Parameters (P&P).
In the 1980s he proposes to distinguish between I-Language and E-Language.
In 1995, he launched his Minimalist Program (MP).
Chomsky's hierarchy
Chomsky's concept of Generative Grammar (GG), because of its abstract character, mathematized (or formalized) linguistics, a process that can be compared to the mathematization of logic and that gave rise to the so-called "mathematical logic". This concept, due to its high level of abstraction, transcends natural languages, and opened the way for the definition of formal grammars in general, especially those of computer languages.
The so-called "Chomsky hierarchy" is a classification of formal languages based on the different types of formal grammars that generate formal languages. This hierarchy [Chomsky, 1959] consists of 4 levels, from higher to lower generality, and where each level encompasses the lower ones:
Type 0 (unconstrained) grammars. They correspond to recursively enumerable languages.
Type 1 grammars (context-sensitive grammars), which generate context-sensitive languages.
Type 2 grammars (context-free grammars), which generate context-independent languages.
Type 3 grammars (regular grammars), which generate regular languages.
GGTs are more powerful than context-free grammars. That is why GGTs are still applied in parsing and in studying the process of language acquisition, even though Chomsky has abandoned many aspects of GGT.
The four types of grammars are not particularizations of UG, because Chomsky has not made his UG hypothesis concrete.
With MENTAL we have a complete language with which we can define all kinds of languages and grammars (including Chomsky's hierarchy), simply and with total flexibility, because the primitives represent degrees of freedom.
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